Table 2 Distinctions between strategy research on alliances, networks, and ecosystems
| Strategic alliances | Strategic networks | Business ecosystems | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Definition |
Voluntary arrangements between firms involving exchange, sharing, or codevelopment of products, technologies, or services (Gulati 1998). | Strategic networks are composed of interorganizational ties that are enduring, are of strategic significance for the firms entering them, and include strategic alliances, joint ventures, long-term buyer-supplier partnerships, and a host of similar ties (Gulati, Nohria, and Zaheer, 2000) | Set of actors that contribute to the user value proposition of a focal product or service, designed with or without a platform-based technological architecture |
| Connections between firms | Alliance | Alliance | Interdependence between activities/technologies |
| Unit of analysis | Firm or alliance | Firm or network (typically alliance) | Innovation or firm or ecosystem |
| Key theoretical considerations | Alliance governance (formal/relational), alliance capability, partners’ resources | Structure of ties, access to information, status, brokerage (information, resources), embeddedness | Structure of interdependence (technology, inputs-outputs), complements, bottlenecks, platforms |